Introduction
In 2010, when Dhaka was all set to celebrate its 400 years anniversary as capital founding anniversary, the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) ranked Dhaka as the 9th largest megacity of the world in terms of the size of its population.1 UN-HABITAT has also projected that Dhaka would become the 4th largest megacity of the world with a population of 2,20,15,000 by 2025.2 The earlier population growth trends of Dhaka were also similarly stunning like the present as well as future trends as estimated by UN-HABITAT. The population growth trends of this city were determined by the dramatic rises and falls witnessed in the history of the city itself since its glorious ascendancy as Mughal capital of the suba Bangla 400 years ago. In parallel with the demographic components of population growth such as fertility, mortality and migration, 3 the socio-politico-economic events of the city as well as the region in the context of Mughal, colonial and post-colonial regime had overwhelmingly and very naturally as well, impacted the city’s population structure and growth trends. Like many historical cities of the world, Dhaka, with its geographical centrality, strategically advantageous position and geo-hydrographical superiority along with its excellent communication networks in water and land with the other parts of the country and beyond, had all the potentiality to become one of the major cities in this region.4 In the pre-Mughal era, Dhaka’s urban-commercial ingenuity was evident in the celebrated commercial exposure of muslin in different continents since the ‘ancient maritime world’ 5 and the establishment of different non-agricultural and commercial profession-based area in the city.6 Islam Khan’s arrival with a large Mughal entourage of approximately 50,000 to 60,000 people and subsequent commissioning of Dhaka as the capital for the first time in 16107 had transformed the demographic scenario as well as the socio-politico-economic landscape of this city forever. Vibrant commercial activities along with the favourable entrepreneur environment facilitated by the Mughal rulers had attracted many foreign traders and travellers from this region and beyond to add demographic cosmopolitanism with the existing dynamism of the city.8
The major objective of this article is to describe and analyse the basic population growth trends of Dhaka city during 1610-1947 period. The discussion has advanced through three basic sections like data sources and approach of the study, population growth trends during 1610-1872 and 1872-1951 periods. The growth patterns of male-female population, sex ratio dynamics, religious composition context and population density of the city with comparative approach were analysed in the context of population growth patterns.
Data and Approach of the Study
Data Sources
James Taylor started the discussion on population of ‘Dacca’ titled ‘Population—Hindoos—Mohommedans—Christians’ in his ‘A Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca’ in a rather pessimistic way.9 The first sentence of this chapter‘… population of the district has never been accurately ascertained.’ had clearly implied a difficult context to address the population issues of Dhaka.10 A similar situation was also felt to determine the number and other population trends of Dhaka city in this discussion due to the nature and availability-unavailability of population data and its socio-politico-economic context. Basically data from two major sources namely historical sources and population censuses were used.
Study Period
The total time period of this discussion 1610-1947 was divided into pre-census (1610-1872) and census (1872-1947) periods on the basis of the nature of population data. The data presented for 1610-1872 period are basically historical in nature. Some estimates and two early census data of Dhaka during these periods were analysed. The ending year of the first phase and the starting year of the second phase is 1872 which is historically significant as the first decennial population census of Indian subcontinent was administered in 1872.11 Although the title of this discussion indicates the end of the time period in 1947 for another obvious reason of the Independence of the Indian subcontinent, the analysis has been functionally extended to 1951 when the last decennial population census was taken during this period.
Approach of the Study
The estimation and analysis of population growth trends in Dhaka city during the pre-census 1610-1872 period was divided into two phases following two distinctive types of socio-politico-economic regimes demarcated by the ending of the Mughal era and starting of the British colonial rule in 1765.12 Although Dhaka lost its capital status atthe beginning of the 18th century, its industrial-commercial and strategic importance continued until the cessation of the Mughal Empire in 1765 due to its position as the Mughal Army and Naval headquarter in the Eastern Bengal and its increased commercial-manufacturing activities.13 Along with administrative and commercial supremacy, population showed an upward growth trend in this era according to different historical observations and estimations (Table 1). As different historical sources did not mention the number of male-female separately, an attempt has been made to estimate the number of male-female separately on the basis of the average percentage of male-female during 1872-2001 periods which was calculated 57.94 and 42.06 respectively. It was applied on the ground that a population growth trend and a ‘revival’ process of Dhaka city, which was started a little earlier by the 1860s or 1870s, was observed during 1872-2001 periods like the Mughal era had gone through.14 In the absence of the absolute number, similar type of assumptive population estimation on the socio-politico-economic basis was also observed in James Taylor’s or Abdul Karim’s work.15 1765-1872 period constituted the second phase of the pre-census 1610-1872 period, when the city as well as the adjacent region came under the British colonial rule. Historians, travellers, colonial administrators have observed a holistic decline of the city since 176516 which was also demographically reflected in two early population censuses of 1830 and 1838 by Henry Walters and James Taylor respectively.17 The male-female percentage of James Taylor’s enumeration which was 51.84 and 48.16 respectively in 1838 was applied to estimate the male-female number separately during the pre-census 1765-1872 period on the basis that Dhaka city reached its nadir of decay during this early period of the 19th century.18 Absolute number of population, male-female number, population density, religion based population distribution, and other related population characteristics of this city were recorded during the census period of 1872-1951.
Any study of Dhaka city requires the operational definition of the city as there are a number of identifications of this city by different administrative bodies. Before 1872, the area and population of the city was taken from different historical sources. After 1872, the jurisdiction of the ‘Dacca Municipality’, which was already constituted under the ‘District Municipal Improvement Act of 1864’, was used to analyse population growth trends of Dhaka City.19 However, for the year 1951, the area and population of the Dhaka Statistical Metropolitan Area (SMA) which is now called ‘Dhaka Megacity’ was also presented for comparative analysis.20
Population Growth Trends during 1610-1872
Population During 1610 to 1765
It is difficult to estimate the population during 1610-1765 period as there was no official population estimation during this pre-census Mughal period.21 Considering different historical sources in their relevant context, Abdul Karim estimated the population of Dhaka city at 1,00,000 to 1,25,000 during the founding of the city as the Mughal capital.22 Almost half of this population constituted the Mughal military-administrative structure and their civil associates and the other half constituted the indigenous local population and some outside traders and service providers for the large Mughal administration.23 Ahmad Hasan Dani and Sharif Uddin Ahmed also mentioned about 50,000 entourage of Islam Khan during his arrival at the city.24 The impacts of the changing political status of the city as well as the arrival of the Mughal ‘governmental establishment’ were absolutely colossal and it was vividly visible in this estimation as the population of the city became more than double. The administrative-commercial importance of the city continued to grow and its population and area had almost doubled by 1640.25 Portuguese monk Sebastian Manrique also mentioned about 2,00,000 people in Dhaka city in 1640.26 This second doubling growth of its population and perimeter within just 30 years of establishment as capital clearly implied an intense migration process of people to the city. Manrique mentioned about many temporary visitors, traders and workers who came to take the socio-economic advantages of this ‘chief city in Bengala and the seat of the principal Nababo or Viceroy…’. 27 Different European factories were established and ‘merchants, traders, and bankers’ from ‘Europeans, Armenians, Mughals, Pathans, Turanis, Marwaris and other up-country Hindus---- came to Dacca to do business’. 28
Table-1: Population of Dhaka City from Different Historical Sources, 1610-186829
| Year | Estimated /Enumerated Population* | Source | Estimated/ Enumerated Male | Estimated/ Enumerated Female | Estimated Sex Ratio |
| 1610-1765 (Mughal Period) | |||||
| 1610 | 1,00,000-1,25,000 | Abdul Karim | 57,940-72,425 | 42,060-52,575 | 138 |
| 1640 | 2,00,000 | Sebastian Manrique | 1,14,480 | 85,520 | |
| 1670-1688 | 8,00,000-10,00,000 | 1) Syed Muhammed Taifoor 2) Rahman Ali’s Tarikh-i-Dhaka 3) S N H Rizvi | 4,57,920-5,79,400 | 3,42,080-4,20,600 | |
| 1700 | 1,30,000 | Tertius Chandler | 75,322 | 54,678 | |
| 1750 | 1,00,000 | Tertius Chandler | 57,940 | 42,060 | |
| 1765 | 4,50,000 | James Rennell | 2,60,730 | 1,89,270 | |
| 1765-1868 (British Period) | |||||
| 1786 | 2,00,000 | Abdul Karim | 1,03,680 | 96,320 | 108 |
| 1800/1801 | 2,00,000 | 1) Home Miscellaneous Series, India Office Library 2) James Taylor | 1,03,680 | 96,320 | |
| 1814 | 2,00,000 | Charles D’Oyly | 1,03,680 | 96,320 | |
| 1815 | 1,50,000 | Walter Hamilton | 77,760 | 72,240 | |
| 1818 | 1,50,000 | Karl Marx | 77,760 | 72,240 | |
| 1823-1824 | 3,00,000 | Bishop Heber | 1,55,520 | 1,44,480 | |
| 1830 | 66,989 | Henry Walters’ Census* | 37,619 | 29,370 | |
| 1837 | 20,000 | Karl Marx | 11,588 | 8,412 | |
| 1838 | 60,617 | James Taylor’s Census* | 31,422 | 29,195 | |
| 1867 | 51,636 | History and Statistics of the Dacca Division | 31,424 | 20,212 | |
| 1868 | 60,000 | George Bellet’s Estimation | 31,104 | 28,896 | |
* Only 1830 and 1838’s population, male, female were enumerated, others were estimated/observed.
The highest population estimation was found during the reign of Mir Jumla and Shaista Khan in between 1660 to 1688 which was termed as the ‘golden period of the city’ and Dhaka’s population was estimated at 8,00,000 to 10,00,000 according to some sources.30 The continually increasing migration was mentioned as the cause of this four-fivefold population increase from 1640 and its area extended ‘fourteen miles inland from the bank of the river’ during this period.31 Abdul Karim termed this estimation ‘exaggeration’ and he estimated that Dhaka’s population must have been about four to five lakhs during the heyday of the city.32 Testimonies of different foreign travellers like Nicola Manucci in 1663, J.B. Tavernier in 1666 or Thomas Bowrey in 1669-79 did not mention any specific number of population, but they all confirmed about the prosperity and a large population of Dhaka city at that time.33
Dhaka’s population declined during the early 18th century as its capital status was stripped off in 1715-16 and the provincial administrative establishment with a large part of the Mughal army was transferred.34 Tertius Chandler’s historical census estimated a population decline from 1,30,000 in 1700 to 1,00,000 in 1750. Population decline was modest due to its increasing commercial and manufacturing activities by some European trading companies which increased about 75% at that time.35 Moreover, Dhaka remained the headquarter of Dhaka sub-province comprising of almost half of the present Bangladesh as well as the headquarter of the Mughal Army and Navy of Eastern Bengal.36 James Rennell estimated a population of 4,50,000 at the end of the Mughal rule in Dhaka in 1765.37
Population during 1765 to 1872
Dhaka’s glorious past began to fade with the advent of British colonial rule in 1765. Different natural calamities like floods, famines, droughts and earthquakes were recorded in 1769-70, 1773, 1775, 1781, 1784, 1787-88 which caused many lives in the greater Dhaka district along with other parts of the region and many people migrated to Dhaka city ‘in the hope of finding some alleviation of their distresses’.38 But many thousands died of starvation in the city and its suburbs.39 Along with high mortality due to these natural disasters, British colonial trade policies and activities massively reduced different local thriving industries specially the cotton industry and the livelihoods of thousands of people and infrastructure of this city were worst affected.40 All these decay, destruction and de-urbanisation were reflected in Dhaka’s declining population in different historical observations and censuses. Population declined sharply during the early 19th century and ‘then levelled off to a stationary state for the next four decades’.41 James Taylor estimated 2,00,000 people in 1800/1801.42 Abdul Karim also estimated about 2,00,000 people in Dhaka in 1786 or 1800.43 If James Rennell’s estimation of 4,50,000 people in 1765 as a close estimation to the real population of Dhaka city is considered, then it was a 55% decrease just within 35 years. Karl Marx who was critically analysing the ‘British Rule in India’ mentioned about 1,50,000 people in 1818 which declined to only 20,000 in 1837.44 Charles D’Oyly and Walter Hamilton estimated 2,00,000 and 1,50,000 people in 1814 and 1815 respectively which was close to Karl Marx’s estimation of 1,50,000 people in 1818. Bishop Heber estimated 3,00,000 people in 1823/1824 which W. W. Hunter termed as ‘a very excessive estimate’.45 The decline of the socio-politico-economic milieu of the city was best reflected in two early population censuses where population of the city was 66,989 in 1830 and 60,617 in 1838 by Henry Walters and James Taylor respectively.46 Henry Walters’ census included the foreigners like Armenians, Greeks and others, whose numbers were 322 in 1830 in Dhaka.47 He opined that an assumption of nearly equal male-female proportion and inclusion of the armed forces would make Dhaka’s population to at least 75,000 in 1830.48 Henry Walters’ ‘Census of the City of Dacca’ is considered as perhaps the first complete census of any city of Indian subcontinent and best surveyed where population was classified by sex and broad age group with some other important socio-economic characteristics.49 James Taylor’s Census excluded 7,689 people living in the villages of the outskirts of the city and 304 Christians comprising English, Anglo-Indians, Portuguese, Armenians, Greeks, French and Dutch whose inclusion would make Dhaka’s population to 68,610 in 1838.50 Only Hindu and Muslim population in the main city area were included to present the total population of Dhaka city in James Taylor census.51 Some other estimates found a declining trend of population and it was estimated at 51,636 and 60,000 according to two estimates of 1867 and 1868 respectively.
Population Growth Trends during 1872-1951
The population of Dhaka city was 69,212 in 1872, when the first decennial population census of this region was taken. The next census was taken nine years later in 1881; however, the other remaining censuses in this discussion up to 1951 were taken decennially.
Table 2: Number, Intercensal Variation, Growth Rate of Dhaka City Population and Percent of the Total and Urban Population of Bangladesh, 1872-195152
| Year | Dhaka’s Total Population | Intercensal Variation | Percent of National Urban population | Percent of National Population | Growth Rate (Exponential) | |
| Number | Percent | |||||
| 1872 | 69,212 | -- | -- | *3.73 | .20 | -- |
| 1881 | 79,076 | +9,864 | 14.25 | 3.97 | .21 | 1.49 |
| 1891 | 82,321 | +3,245 | 4.10 | 3.70 | .20 | .403 |
| 1901 | 90,542 | +8,221 | 9.99 | 12.90 | .31 | .956 |
| 1911 | 1,08,551 | +18,818 | 20.97 | 13.45 | .34 | 1.92 |
| 1921 | 1,19,450 | +10,899 | 10.04 | 13.59 | .36 | .961 |
| 1931 | 1,38,518 | +19,068 | 15.96 | 12.90 | .39 | 1.49 |
| 1941 | 2,13,218 | +74,700 | 53.93 | 13.87 | .51 | 4.41 |
| 1951 | 2,76,033 **(4,11,279) | +62,815 (+1,98,061) | 29.46 (92.89) | 15.17 (22.60) | .62 (.93) | 2.62 (6.79) |
*Italic figures are for the area of the Bengal Province
** Figures in the parenthesis are for the Dhaka Megacity
Since 1872, a population increasing trend was observed. The intercensal percentage variation as well as the growth was the lowest in 1891 as school boys of the city were mostly absent due to holidays during the enumeration.53 According to the number of population less than 1,00,000, Dhaka belonged to the category of ‘Class II town’ in Bengal Province during 1872-1901 periods.54 In this time, the absolute number of population growth was quite low except 1881 when a 14.25% intercensal increase was recorded. The average annual growth rate was also quite low and it was less than one per cent. The overall increase during 1872-1901 period in comparison with the earlier times was not hampered due to the absence of any ‘serious or widespread calamity affecting the normal growth of population’.55 Mortality declined due to decline in death rate from different diseases and introduction of different modern public health and hygiene measures in the city.56 On average, Dhaka had 3.8% and .20% of urban and total population respectively of
Figure 1: Population Growth of Dhaka City, 1872-1951
Figure 2: Population Growth Rate in Dhaka City, 1881-1951
the then Bengal province in 1872-1891 periods. With a population of 1,08,551 in 1911, Dhaka achieved the status of a ‘Class I Town’ or City for the first time in census period with Kolkata and Howrah in Bengal Province according to the definition of the census of that time.57 Dhaka ranked third position among these three ‘Class I’ towns in Bengal in 1911.58 The intercensal percent variation of 9.99 in 1901 became 20.97 in 1911. The highest absolute population growth as well as more than two-times intercensal percentage increase with high growth rate of 1.92 within only ten years in 1911 could be explained in terms of Dhaka’s ascendancy as the ‘headquarters of the Eastern Bengal and Assam Government in 1905, after which people settled in increasing numbers in the town’.59 At the same time, this partition ‘aroused communal feelings in East Bengal to such an extent that the census of 1911 is considered to have suffered from some inflation’.60 Dhaka had 13.45% of the urban and .34% of the total population of the present Bangladesh area in 1911. Although the absolute population increased, the population growth trends declined in 1921 and it was explained in terms of, firstly, ‘many deaths from influenza epidemic of 1918’ and secondly, the census of 1921 was ‘boycotted, in some quarters due to the non-co-operation movement resulting in some under enumeration’.61 The annulment of the Partition of Bengal in 1911 and Dhaka’s relegation from capital to a mere district headquarter ‘was a heavy blow’ 62 also contributed to this declining trend of population in 1921. Among the cities of Indian subcontinent, Dhaka was 28th in 1921.63
Dhaka’s population again started to show increasing trends in 1931. In terms of absolute number, intercensal percentage increase, Dhaka’s share in urban and national population of the country and annual growth rate increased considerably. Dhaka’s population took a doubling from 69,212 in 1872 to 1,38,518 in 1931 and it took 59 years. Establishment of the University of Dhaka in 1921 again started to revitalize the city and the region.64 At the same time, ‘in view of the impending political reforms, there were also communal rivalries tending to inflate the enumeration to obtain political advantages’ in parallel with ‘still some opposition from non-cooperation’ contributed to this growth to some extent.65
The Census of 1941 recorded a large increase in absolute number, intercensal percentage and annual growth rate of population of the city. But the overall census figure of 1941 was evaluated ‘inflated’, because ‘the communal excitement became so great that each community vied with the other to swell their respective number by fair means or foul and by multiple fictitious enumerations’.66 As extent of political activities was greater in Dhaka city, it might be assumed that the level of over enumeration should also be higher in Dhaka city. 1941-1951 period were monumentally eventful for the history of the subcontinent and Dhaka as well. Dhaka again appeared as capital of East Pakistan in 1947 and in the 1951 census, it was the third largest city, next to Lahore and Karachi, in Pakistan.67 Although, the country’s total population increased slightly with a very low growth rate of 0.50 in 1951 from 1941 due to a number of historical causes, the population of Dhaka tremendous increased during this time.68 The second doubling of the population of Dhaka took place from 1,38,518 in 1931 to 2,76,033 in 1951, where there was a deficit of only 1,003 people to become the exact double figure. But if the area of Megacity Dhaka is considered, the population increased almost three times within these 20 years. Megacity Dhaka had 22.60% of the total urban population and .93% of the total population of the country which was the highest in 1872-1951 period in 1951. Megacity Dhaka had 6.79% annual growth rate in 1951 which was also the highest in this period. The growth patterns of the municipal area were quite modest in comparison with the previous years.
Growth of Male-Female in Dhaka City
The number of male had always been higher than female in Dhaka City. Male-female number in pre-census 1610-1872 period presented separately in Table 1 was estimated on the basis of a demographic assumption based on the socio-economic conditions prevailing at that time as mentioned earlier. Absolute number of male-female was found in 1830 and 1838 in Henry Walters’ and James Taylor’s census respectively. Male-female number was 37,619-29,370 in Henry Walters’ census in 1830 where people from all religions were included.69 James Taylor found 31,422 males and 29,195 females in 1838 comprising only the Hindu and Muslim people.70 Male declined from 56.16% in 1830 to 51.84% in 1838 which can be demographically explained in terms of decreased male migration to Dhaka due to declining socio-economic condition.
Table-3: Number, Percentage, Incercensal Variation and Annual Growth Rate of Male and Female in Dhaka City, 1872-195171
| Year | Male | ||||
| Number | Percent | Intercensal Variation | Annual Growth Rate (Exponential) | ||
| Number | Percent | ||||
| 1872 | 37,395 | 54.03 | - | - | - |
| 1881 | 41,703 | 52.74 | +4,308 | 11.52 | 1.22 |
| 1891 | 45,199 | 54.90 | +3496 | 8.38 | 0.80 |
| 1901 | 50,263 | 55.51 | +5064 | 11.20 | 1.07 |
| 1911 | 63,091 | 58.12 | +12,828 | 25.52 | 2.29 |
| 1921 | 67,333 | 56.37 | +4,242 | 6.72 | 0.65 |
| 1931 | 79,365 | 57.30 | +12,032 | 17.87 | 1.66 |
| 1941 | 1,23,156 | 57.76 | +43,791 | 55.18 | 4.49 |
| 1951 | 1,71,884 (2,56,087) | 62.27 (62.27) | +48,728 (+1,32,931) | 39.57 (107.94) | 3.39 (7.59) |
| Female | |||||
| 1872 | 31,817 | 45.97 | - | - | - |
| 1881 | 37,373 | 47.26 | +5,556 | 17.46 | 1.80 |
| 1891 | 37,122 | 45.09 | -251 | -0.67 | -0.067 |
| 1901 | 40,279 | 44.48 | +3,157 | 8.50 | 0.82 |
| 1911 | 45,460 | 41.88 | +5,181 | 12.86 | 1.21 |
| 1921 | 52,117 | 43.63 | +6657 | 14.64 | 1.37 |
| 1931 | 59,153 | 42.70 | +7,036 | 13.50 | 1.27 |
| 1941 | 90,062 | 42.24 | +30,909 | 52.25 | 4.29 |
| 1951 | 1,04,149 *(1,55,192) | 37.73 (37.73) | +14,087 (+65,130) | 15.64 (72.32) | 1.46 (5.59) |
* Figures in the parenthesis are for the Dhaka Megacity
Since 1872, male percentage had showed a consistent increasing trend except 1881 and 1921. The male and female average percentages were 56.55 and 43.44 respectively during 1872-1951 period. Number of male increased from 54.03% in 1872 to 62.27% in 1951. And inversely female percentage has showed a consistent decreasing trend except 1881 and 1921. It decreased from 45.97% in 1872 to 37.73% in 1951. Male intercensal percentage variation become more than double from 11.52 in 1872 to 25.52 in 1911, whereas female intercensal percentage variation decreased from 17.46 in 1872 to 12.86 in 1911. Male excessive increase in 1911, in terms of all growth parameters, can be explained by Dhaka’s emergence as the headquarter of the newly formed province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 where ample employment opportunity for male was created in ‘construction of public buildings, moreover, necessitated the employment of a large labour force, the population was further increased by the staff of the Secretariat and other offices’.72 Many immigrants were coming in Dhaka and ‘out of every thousand persons, 198 are foreign born’.73 These immigrants were employed in professions like ‘constables, railway servants, boatmen, general labourers, porters, domestic servants, scavengers and shoemakers’.74 The demographic impacts of the annulment of the province and losing capital status in 1911 were reflected in the male-female growth context in 1921 census. Male percentage decreased from 58.12 in 1911 to 56.37 in 1921 and female percentage increased from 41.88 in 1911 to 43.63 in 1921. Although female intercensal variation increased slightly, male intercensal variation decreased almost four times. Female growth rate was 1.37 and male growth rate was .65 which was less than half of the female growth rate in 1921. However, the male-female growth patterns return to its earlier trend in 1931. High percentage variation and high growth rate of male-female population in 1941 was due to the ‘inflated’ results of the census.75 Dhaka’s appearance as the capital of East Pakistan was highly reflected in the male–female percentage, intercensal percentage variation as well as male-female growth rate in 1951. The highest and the lowest percentage of male and female respectively were recorded during 1872-1951 period in 1951 census. A very similar trend was also recorded in 1911. The intercensal variation as well as the growth rate of both male-female was the highest in 1951 during 1872-1951 period.
Sex Ratio in Dhaka City
Sex ratio of Dhaka city had clearly demonstrated the South-Asian urban character of the city in the 19th and 20th centuries where sex ratio had always been higher.76 Along with under enumeration of females, employment opportunities in trade, commerce, industries, offices etc. in the urban areas attracted many males for a living who usually left their wives and children in their country houses.77 Except 1830 and 1838, all the sex ratios during the pre-census 1610-1872 period were estimated (Table-1). As the enumerated number of male-female was available separately in two censuses of Henry Walters and James Taylor, the sex ratio was calculated 128 and 108 in 1830 and 1838 respectively. It should be mentioned here that these calculated sex ratios would be lower as the number of female should be higher in both censuses as many women, both from Muslim and Hindu communities, remained ‘behind the curtain’ and couldn’t be enumerated accurately.78 These declining trends of sex ratio of the city and more specifically, the sex ratio of 108 in 1838 which was very close to the natural sex ratio at birth79 appears as a very strong testimony of the declining socio-economic condition of the city. As male predominates in migration streams to the large cities in different less industrialized Southeast Asian countries,80 it can be safely assumed that male migration to the city was almost zero due to very few employment/work opportunity at that time.
Dhaka’s revitalization process was evident in the 1872’s sex ratio of 117 which increased from 108 in James Taylor’s 1838 census. The increased sex ratio in 1872 had indicated increased number of socio-economic, commercial and administrative activities in the city where male participation was higher. Dhaka’s appearance and disappearance as the capital of the Eastern Bengal and Assam was evident in the sex ratio trends where the highest sex ratio of 138 was recorded in 1911 during 1872-1911 period and its decline to 129 in 1921. The in-migration and out-migration of male population in Dhaka city during 1911 and 1921 respectively were reflected in these ups and downs of these sex ratios. Sex ratio showed a gradual and steady increasing trend during 1921-1941 period. The highest sex ratio of 161 was recorded in 1951, when Dhaka had again become the capital of the then East Pakistan. Dhaka’s growing administrative-commercial importance as well as more.
Figure 3: Sex Ratio in Dhaka City, 1872-1951
Source: Calculated from Table 3
male involvement in these activities was evident in this highest sex ratio during 1872-1951 period. Along with this trend, many Hindus had already sent away their families to India after 1947 which also contributed to the increasing sex ratio of the city and in other urban areas.81
Religion Based Population Distribution in Dhaka City
Hindus and Muslims were the two major groups of Dhaka city and they constituted almost 99% of the total population during 1872-1951 period. Other religious group like Buddhist, Christian, Sikh, Jain, Jew, etc. were also found. Muslim percentage was found higher than Hindu in Henry Walters’ and James Taylor’s census. Muslim percentage increased from 52.60 in 1830 to 53.55 in 1838 and Hindu percentage decreased slightly from 46.92 in 1830 to 46.44 in 1838.82 The scenario changed since 1872 and a consistent Hindu percentage increase and inversely, a consistent Muslim percentage decrease were recorded till 1941. The Hindu
Table 4: Religion Based Number and Percentage of the People in Dhaka City, 1872-195183
| Year | Hindu | Muslim | Buddhist | Christian | Sikh | Jain | Jew | Others | ||||||||
| N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | |
| 1872 | 34433 | 49.75 | 34275 | 49.52 | 4 | .006 | 479 | .69 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 21 | .03 |
| 1881 | 39635 | 50.12 | 38913 | 49.20 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 528 | .68 |
| 1891 | 42033 | 50.44 | 40827 | 49.00 | -- | -- | 467 | .56 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| 1901 | 48668 | 53.75 | 41361 | 45.68 | 28 | .03 | 484 | .53 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| 1911 | 59994 | 55.26 | 47295 | 43.57 | 85 | .08 | 898 | .83 | 16 | .01 | -- | -- | 9 | .008 | 254 | .23 |
| 1921 | 69145 | 57.89 | 49325 | 41.29 | 12 | .01 | 710 | .59 | 57 | .04 | 5 | .004 | 4 | .003 | 192 | .16 |
| 1931 | 80024 | 57.77 | 57764 | 41.70 | 26 | .01 | 683 | .49 | 16 | .01 | 5 | .003 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| 1941 | 129233 | 60.61 | 82693 | 38.78 | -- | -- | 349 | .16 | 53 | .02 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 890 | .42 |
| 1951 | 63058 | 15.60 | 339968 | 84.09 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1,275 | .31 |
percentage of 49.75 in 1872 increased to 60.61 in 1941 and the Muslim percentage of 49.52 in 1872 decreased to 38.78 in 1941. But in the Dhaka District as a whole, the Muslim percentage was higher.84 The Hindu-Muslim percentage in Dhaka District was 42 and 56.67; 40.5 and 59.1; and 38.7 and 60.8 in 1872, 1881 and 1891 respectively.85 But the scenario was different in the urban areas. The urban areas of Bengal had 67% of Hindu and 30% Muslim in 1911 although Muslim constituted ‘over one half of the total population, the percentage they contribute to the urban population is extremely small’ in Bengal.86
Figure 4: Hindu-Muslim Percentage Changes in Dhaka, 1872-1951
The majority of the Hindus in urban areas of Bengal as well as in Dhaka city during 1872-1941 period could be explained by the fact that Hindu’s participation was greater in terms of both number and superiority in the resurrection process Dhaka was going through during that periods. Immigration of educated people, merchants, bankers, teachers, workerws, labourers, etc. was necessary in this revival of Dhaka and Hindus participated in greater number in this process. The Census of 1911 recorded the immigrants from ‘United Provinces and Bihar from which immigrants come in large numbers are Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Muzaffarnagar, Ghazipur, Ballia, Gorakhpur and Azamgarh’.87 Artisans, traders and labourers arrival from the rural areas of Dhaka District had also contributed to the growth.88 The religion based partition of the Indian Subcontinent in 1947 aroused one of the largest religion based population migration in the modern history and its impacts were clearly visible in the religious structure of Dhaka’s population. The religion based population structure of the last 70 years has changed overwhelmingly. In 1951 census, there were 84.09% Muslim and 15.60% Hindu in Dhaka city. Among the Muslim population of Dhaka city in 1951, about 21% people were Muhajirs who migrated from India to Pakistan.89 Along with this process, Dhaka’s reemergence as the capital of the then East Pakistan pulled many people to Dhaka city from other parts of the country which also contributed to the greater number of Muslims as well as population of the city.
Population Density in Dhaka City
Since 1872, Dhaka along with its neighbouring regions was found as one of the most densely populated areas in the world.90 Estimation of Dhaka’s population density seems more striking, if the different earlier historical estimation of population and area of Dhaka city are considered. It can be estimated at an astonishing 20,000 to 25,000 people per sq. mile during the city’s first appearance as a capital city in 1610.91 Dhaka’s area expanded quickly and population density can be estimated at about 20,000 people per sq. mile in 1640.92 Nicola Mannuci’s observation in 1663 testified high population density of the city.93 From the historical accounts mentioned by Sharif uddin Ahmed, Dhaka’s area expanded vastly to about 150 sq. miles with the suburbs during the ‘Golden Period of the City’ and its density can be estimated at 6,000 people per sq. mile.94 But the main city area covered only 25 sq. miles where density should be very high.95 According to Abdul Karim’s historical account, Dhaka’s population density could be estimated at about 10,000 to 12,500 people per sq. mile during the heyday of the city in the 17th century.96 Dhaka’s population and prosperity declined during the 18th century, but surprisingly, tremendously increased population density can be estimated from different historical sources. If James Rennell’s estimation is considered then population density of Dhaka was 45,000 people per sq. mile in 1765.97 It declined to 25,000 people per sq. mile in 1801.98 This apparent anomaly was explained in terms of many suburb’s people overcrowding and many rural people’s migration and settlement in the city centre due to a number of natural calamities, famines, fear of deaths and other related reasons.99 Population density became 12,123 people per sq.mile from James Taylor’s observation in 1838.100 Population density in Dhaka city showed consistent increasing trends during 1872-1951 period. It was 422 and 10,058 persons per sq.mile for the then Bengal and Dhaka city respectively in 1872. Dhaka’s density increased to 45,000 persons per sq.mile in 1951 which was almost a 4.5 fold increase in 79 years. The population density of Bangladesh or Dhaka Zilla had about a 2 fold increase at that time. Dhaka, on average, had an almost 25 times higher density than the country until 1901. After 1911, this difference become bigger and got irregular trends.
Table-5: Population Density of Bangladesh, Dhaka Zilla and Dhaka City, 1872-1951101
| Year | Bangladesh | Dhaka Zilla | Dhaka City | ||||||
| Density Per sq.mile | Intercensal Variation | Density Per sq.mile | Intercensal Variation | Density Per sq.mile | Intercensal Variation | ||||
| Number | Percent | Number | Percent | Number | Percent | ||||
| 1872 | *422 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10,058 | -- | -- |
| 1881 | 450 | +28 | 6.64 | 750 | -- | -- | 11,491 | +1,433 | 14.25 |
| 1891 | 484 | +34 | 7.56 | 852 | +102 | 13.6 | 11,963 | +472 | 4.11 |
| 1901 | 508 | +24 | 4.96 | 955 | +103 | 12.09 | 13,157 | +1,194 | 9.98 |
| 1911 | 554 | +46 | 9.06 | 1,069 | +114 | 11.94 | 15,917 | +2,760 | 20.98 |
| 1921 | 584 | +30 | 5.42 | 1,157 | +88 | 8.23 | 17,566 | +1,649 | 10.36 |
| 1931 | 625 | +41 | 7.02 | 1,258 | +101 | 8.73 | 23,086 | +5,520 | 31.42 |
| 1941 | 737 | +112 | 17.92 | 1,541 | +283 | 22.50 | 35,536 | + 12,450 | 53.93 |
| 1951 | 775 | +38 | 5.16 | 1,492 | -49 | -3.18 | 45,000 | +9,464 | 26.63 |
*Italic figures are for the area of the Bengal Province
In 1911, density of Dhaka city was 15,917 and it was 28 times higher than the whole country and accordingly, intercensal percentage variation of Dhaka’s density was 20.98, which was the largest in 1872-1911 periods. It was more than 1.5 fold increase from the density of 1872. This density of the city in 1911 became more than double within 30 years in 1941. The density of 15,917 in 1911 became 35,536 in 1941. The intercensal percentage variation was 53.93 and it was the largest variation in 1872-1951 periods. Population density was the highest in 1951 like other components of the population growth trends in 1951. Dhaka was 58 times more densely populated than the whole country in that year.
Conclusion
The City of Dhaka had gone through basically three types of politico-administrative regimes of the Mughal, British and Pakistan administration during 1610-1951 periods. Corresponding socio-economic trends of these three administrations, along with the major demographic factors, have determined the nature and trends of population growth of the city and the region as well. Dhaka, as a Mughal capital had pulled many people of different professions, colour and creed from home and beyond, which metamorphosed the nature of its demographic structure and growth patterns overnightly. It emerged as a ‘city’ of 20th century’s standard with more than 1,00,000 people in 1610. The Mughal administrative patronage and resultant increased economic-administrative prosperities continued about the next hundred years and increasing population trends was observed during this time. Shifting of the capital to Murshidabad in 1716-17 initiated the departure of a big portion of the Mughal administration and the population size decreased partially. But population decline was not that drastic due to increased commercial activities at that time. The major trends of population decrease started after the British colonial acquisition in 1765. Dhaka lost its administrative and commercial prosperity due to the imposition of the colonial administrative and trade policy. A number of natural calamities and famines were also recorded during 1769 to 1788. Population continued to decline and its decay and destruction got their place in the discourse of the world political economy. Even after this extent of decay, Henry Walters found ‘Dacca’ as a ‘second rate’ city with greater population than Devenport or Brussels in 1830. A revitalisation process was going on in local administration, politics, economy and commerce, public health, education in the late 19th century in Dhaka and it was reflected in an ever increasing population growth trends since 1872. An average growth rate of 2.30 was recorded in 1872-1951 period. Sex ratio had always been high in this city. Economic and administrative position had pulled many people to this city. Migration seemed to play the major role to accelerate the population growth. Being situated in a Muslim majority region, Hindus outnumbered the Muslims in this city during 1872-1951 period. Hindus’ higher number of participation in city’s resurrection process was responsible for this trend. Religion based migration between India and Pakistan after 1947 had drastically changed this trend. Dhaka’s capital ascendancy and descend in 1905 and 1911 respectively and again ascendancy in 1947 showed its impacts on the population growth patterns of the city. Push-pull aspects of migration played a major role to decrease or increase the population of Dhaka city respectively.
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