Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, situated on the northern bank of the river Buriganga, developed into an urban center in the fourteenth century and into a city in the late fifteenth century. On the basis of some epigraphic records including mosque inscriptions, the various stages of the growth of the city will be highlighted in this article.
The epigraphs:
At the outset we dwell upon two epigraphs. One epigraph was first discovered by Khan Bahadur Aulad Hosain, who noticed it in his Notes on the Antiquities of Dacca (p. 28). Later, it was published by H.E. Stapleton with a short commentary in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (JASB) New Series, Vol. VI, 1910, pp. 144-145. The inscription tablet is found fixed above the central doorway of a mosque at Narinda, a big mahalla in the eastern part of the old part of the city of Dhaka. The epigraph, which measures 11/4 feet by 81/4 inches, consists of five lines while there is another line in the right margin. It records the construction of a mosque by Musammat Bakht Binat, daughter of Marhamat, in 861 A.H. (1456-57 A.D.). The inscription does not refer to the reigning Sultan, but the date suggests that it was engraved in the reign of Sultan Nasir al-din Mahmud Shah. The language is Persian, except for the two Arabic words, Bismillah and Kalima, used at the beginning.
The English translation of the inscription is as follows:
In the name of Allah, the Merciful and Compassionate.
There is no God except Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.
Adorned by the voice of Hayya (ala al) Falah come to safety.
At night and morning, in the mosque of this humble person.
[erected by] Musammat Bakht Binat, daughter of Marhamat.
Right margin: In the year 861 A.H/1456-57 A.D.1
The second epigraph seems to have been discovered by Khan Bahadur Aulad Hosain who noticed it in his Notes on the Antiquities of Dacca (p. 34).
The inscription tablet was found in a mosque at Naswalagali, a street in the Mahalla known as Girdi Qila, a little to the west of present-day Central Jail. The mosque, measuring 27 feet by 161/2 feet inside, was a single-domed structure having a 4 feet thick wall; but it was very badly damaged by the earthquake of 1897 and lightning in 1902. The mosque has now disappeared and in its place stands a new mosque.
The inscription tablet was first taken to the Dhaka Collectorate; but it is now preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum, Dhaka. The tablet was first noticed by James Wise who forwarded a rubbing to H. Blochmann for deciphering. Blochmann published it in JASB (Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal), but owing to defective rubbing, he could not decipher it satisfactorily. It was then noticed by Rahman Ali Taish and Sayid Aulad Hasan. They published the text without facsimile, but they too could not decipher the inscription satisfactorily. H.E. Stapleton published the text with illustration in the JASB in 1910, which proved to be the first correct reading. Shamsuddin Ahmed has also published the text with illustration.
The epigraph is carved on a stone slab measuring 4 feet 9 inches by 1 foot and 1 and one-fourth inches, the inscribed surface being 4 feet 6 inches by 11 and a half inches. It consists of two lines of Arabic writing in naskh character. The inscription records the construction of a gateway of a mosque that was strengthened by one Khwajah Jahan in 863 A.H/1459 A.D. in the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. 2
The translation of the inscription given by Abdul Karim is as follows:
1. Allah the Almighty has said, “Verily, the mosques belong to Allah, so do not worship any one along with Allah”. This gate was strengthened and built in the days of the reign of the Khalifa whose aid is sought (by man). (He is) Nasir al Dunya Wal-din Abul Mujaffar Mahmud Shah, the Sultan.
2. May Allah, the Glorious, perpetuate his rule; (built) by one who is entitled Khwajah Jahan, may the Merciful protect him from all evils; in the frontier of Iqlim Mubarakabad, may Allah preserve it till the Day of Judgement. And this was on the 20th of Shaban, in the year 863 A.H. (25th June, 1459 A.D.) of the year of the Hijra. May the peace of God be upon him and all his family.
As the inscription refers to the strengthening of a gateway, it is likely that the gate mentioned here was already in existence but had fallen due to disrepair, the inscription also suggests that it was repaired and rebuilt during the reign of Sultan Nasir al- din Mahmud Shah, the religious head of the Muslim Ummah. Khwajah Jahan of the inscription stands as a single example in the history of Bengal. It indicates that it was a high ranking title of a provincial officer and not a minister of the central government.
Although uncertainty prevails regarding the identification of Iqlim Mubarakabad, H.E. Stapleton gives a possible explanation for the name of the place. He suggests that the “Mubarakabad” referred to in the inscription may have been named after Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, the first independent Sultan of Sonargaon (1338-1349). His power may have extended over the whole of south-eastern Bengal. Stapleton believes that Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah concealed himself in and around Dhaka (Bang), beyond the Sitalakya, when he was ousted by Qadar Khan. Most probably he erected the mosque at Naswalagali and inscribed the name of the Iqlim Mubarakabad after his own name. As for the identification of Mubarakabad, he thinks that, “a relic of the Iqlim seems to be the Mabarak Ujiyal mentioned in the Ain as a pargana of Sarkar Bazuha (vol. II, Garretts translation, p. 138). This still exists as a large pargana of the Dhaka district, comprising much of the land south-west and west of Dhaka district, comprising much of the land between the Padma on the south and the Dhaleswari on the north.
Sonargaon comprised two iqlims as found in inscriptions of Bengal: one stretching towards east and north-east, called iqlim Muazzamabad, and the other stretching towards west and south-west keeping Dhaka in the middle, called iqlim Mubarakabad. Stapleton even suggests that all of old Vikrampur, i.e., those portions of the existing district of Dhaka and Faridpur were included in iqlim Mubarakabad. It can also be suggested that it extended even up to the border of Satgaon i.e. west Bengal.
3. Dhaka is first mentioned in an inscription of the era of Sultan Ruknuddin Barbak Shah, dated 864 A.H. (1460 A.D.), found in Birbhum district, West Bengal. The tablet measures 3 feet 6 inches by 11 inches. It is inscribed in relief and records the construction of a mosque at the village Balanagar, popularly known as Qasba-i-Bara, Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. The inscription contains two lines divided horizontally by a raised border. The language is Arabic.3
The translation of the inscription given by Abdul Karim is as follows:
1. The Prophet, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, has said, “He who builds a mosque in the world, Allah the most high will build a palace in heaven, for every orbit of the mosque”. It was built during the reign of the just Sultan, Rukn al-dunya waldin Abul Muzaffar Barbak Shah, son of Mahmud Shah the Sultan.
2. The builder of the mosque is Khan al Azam Khaqan Muazzam Ulugh Ajelka Khan, son of Tarbiat Khan, Sar-i-Gumasta of Qasba Dhaka Khas (the chief Gumasta of the town of Dhaka) especially for the Imam, Moulana known as Qudi, son of Qazi Ahmed, son of Sheikh Alaul, on the first of Jamadiul Awwal, in the year 846 A.H (23rd Feb. 1460 A.D).
Here it is evident that the mosque was built and there was an Imam, who was a Moulana, a learned man, who was more popularly known as Qadi. He was the son of another Qadi, whose real name was Ahmad. Ahmad was the son of Sufi Sheikh Alaul Huq of Pandua. Ahmad, also a famous saint, was popularly known as Noor Qutubul Alam. Sheikh Alaul Huq died in 1398 A.D. and Noor Qutubul Alam died in 1447 A.D. Their descendant was the Qadi of Dhaka in 1460 A.D. The post of Qadi was a judicial one.
The builder’s father was Tarbiat Khan, a Sar-i-gumasta or Chief Collector of revenue, especially of the city of Dhaka, i.e. Qasba Dhaka Khas. This indicates that he was a high officer, a holder of high rank, working for a Sufi Sheikh and Moulana and leader of the Muslim Society at Dhaka.
Tarbiat Khan, entitled Khan al Azam, al Moazzam al Mokarram was the governor of Satgaon under Sultan Mahmud Shah. He built another mosque in 861 A.H./1457 A.D.4 His son Khan al Azam Khaqan Muazzam Ulugh Ajelka Khan, the Governor of Satgaon built a mosque at Birbhum referring to his illustrious father who was held the same position earlier. At that time Tarbiat Khan was the chief revenue collector of Dhaka. This is clear from the reference to Tarbiat Khan as a man of high rank, retired from the post of Governor (Satgaon); he was entrusted with the collection of revenue of Dhaka, a noteworthy post. Dhaka definitely was a more important place than Satgaon. The chief Qazi might have been the Imam of the mosque of Dhaka, who was a descendant of Sheikh Alaul Huq and a great Muslim scholar or Moulana. The chief Qazi thus held the rank of financial officer in peace time, i.e. Wazir, the provincial head. This suggests that Dhaka was the centre of the province. That is why it is called in the inscription the qasba i-Khas or chief city of all cities.
4. Another epigraph can be seen at Mirpur, Dhaka, where a custom house was established in 885 A.H./1480-81 A.D. A mosque was built there and an inscription fixed over its main entrance. Later, it was made into the tomb of Shah Ali Baghdadi.5
5. Another early reference to Dhaka is found in Joao de Barros’s map, drawn in c. 1550.6
Besides, there are written references where Dhaka is mentioned, as in the Ain-i-Akbari, which is believed to have contained Todar Mall’s revenue settlement of Bengal, 1582. It refers to Dhaka-Bazu as a pargana of Sarkar, Bazuha.7 References to Dhaka are also found in the Akbarnama and Baharistan-i-Ghayebi.8 There are also frequent mention of the place in Inayatulla’s continuation of the Akbarnama and in the narratives of the wars of the Mughal generals, Shahbaz Khan (1583-85) and Mansingh (1594-1605). Dhaka is referred to in them as a thana and we learn that a thanadar was stationed at Dhaka.9
Though Dhaka has been known in history since the early centuries of the Christian era, very little is on record about the origin of the place.10 Available evidence11 shows that the locality grew into a commercial centre flourishing during the ascendancy of the Sena rulers and becoming an urban Muslim centre, and ultimately a qasba or city under the independent Sultans of Bengal. During the reign of Sultan Barbak Shah (1460 A.D.), Dhaka was a revenue collection center under a Sar-i-Gumasta and a Qadi.12
Pre-Mughal, or more specifically Sultanate Dhaka, was located on the bank of the Buriganga, an abandoned channel of the original Ganges, as it is today. It is in 23043’ N Latitude and 40024’ E Longitude. The river is about 26 miles in length and at present it takes off from the Dhaleshwari a little below Savar and flows down, falling into the same river, a little above Narayanganj. The Buriganga receives the flow of the small serpentine river Turag at the north west of the city at Mirpur. Through the Buriganga and Dhaleshwari, Dhaka is connected by water with other great rivers like the Padma (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Shitalakhya and the Meghna. Thus the communication between Dhaka and the neighboring areas of Sonargaon of medieval Bengal was well served by a network of rivers and rivulets. A reading of a 16th century map13 suggests that Dhaka was connected with the great rivers of Bengal like the Padma, the Dhaleshwari, the Turag, the Baloo, the Banar, the Shitalakhya, the old Brahmaputra, and the Meghna, though they often changed their courses.
Like the great seats of civilization of the ancient period, the city originated in a suitable natural setting. It developed gradually on the bank of the Buriganga river since the site was favourable for both human habitation and trade and commerce.14 Since it is located on the southern tip of the Madhupur trap of Pleistocene Terrace, it could be used as an administrative centre for the far south extending as far as the Bay of Bengal. It was always above flood level, in a low-lying area of Bhati, yet adjacent to major rivers of the deltaic area. The area close to the Buriganga was of later formation and has alluvium soil. The ground surface is almost flat and suitable for easy living. The scattered villages existed nearby indicated possibilities of rudimentary farming, cattle rearing and cottage industries. Thus Dhaka was in an advantageous position to grow into a populous town; it started developing into a Muslim urban centre with the establishment of a mosque with a gateway. Its journey began as a Muslim city in the early fourteenth century. The area where the mosque was constructed may be considered to be the earliest settlement of the Muslim population in the city of Dhaka.
The Gupta rulers ruled over Samatata, one of the janapadas of Bengal, from the fifth century A.D. Davaka, one of the units of the area,15 belongs to the Gupta rulers who controlled the river bank of the Buriganga. Their watch station or Dhakka was on the bank of the same river.16 Dhakha (in Arabic language) is available in an inscription of 15th century A.D.17
Thus on the basis of inscriptional evidence it is clear that the name Dhaka originated from Dhakka, the watch station on the river bank of the Buriganga or the Dulai of the Mughals. It came into limelight under the later Iliyas Shahi rulers of the Sultanate period. The Dhakeshwari temple of Goddess Durga of Dhaka became prominent under the Mughals and carried the city’s original name (Ishwari of Dhaka). The structure of the temple bears Mughal characters.
The Muslim occupation of south-eastern Bengal, where Dhaka is located, began in the thirteenth century when Sonargaon, the capital of the later Deva dynasty, was conquered by Sultan Balban of Delhi in 1281 A.D. Balbani rulers ruled East Bengal till 1334 A.D. One Balbani ruler issued the first Muslim coin from the Kharaj of Bang in 1291 A.D. A descendant, Feroz Shah Dehlawi, conquered Sylhet in 1303 and the surrounding areas of Sonargaon. He minted coins from Sonargaon in 1305 A.D. Bang was a janapada of Bengal and Dhaka stood on its southern part. Most probably Dhaka was brought under Muslim rule about this time, if not earlier. 18
Sonargaon was located in between the Meghna and the old Brahmaputra rivers, but Dhaka was situated on the banks of the Shitalakhya and the Banar, on the west. The river bank of Shitalakhya was full of jungles and could not be approached through the river but could be accessed through canals. Historical events indicate that the western part of Shitalakhya was a suitable hiding place for early Muslim rulers when they were driven out of Sonargaon.19 They took shelter in the jungle area beyond Shitalakhya and hid somewhere in and around Dhaka.
From the evidence of the Naswalagali inscription it can be surmised that Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, the first independent Sultan of Sonargaon (1338), established a mosque and a gateway in the fourteenth century when he was hiding in Dhaka. He was driven out of Sonargaon by Qadar Khan in 1338 A.D. According to Ibn Batuta he returned to Sonargaon in 747 A.H/1345 A.D and killed Qadar Khan.20 In between this period, he showed his architectural ambition as was usual for any Muslim conqueror.21 Islamic civilisations attach great importance to the construction of a mosque. According to Ibn Khaldun, it is the most powerful visual expression of civilisation.22 Probably this idea tempted Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah to build a mosque as a mark of legitimacy, power and grandiosity.23 Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah also established his legitimacy by giving the name Iqlim Mubarakabad to this newly conquered area. This was important for him in introducing Islamic belief and culture to the local population. Not only was the gateway of the monument built, it was also inscribed in an Islamic way, broadcasting the naming of the area after his own name. Regarding Mubarakabad, H.E. Stapleton suggests that it refers to the name of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. The place is also mentioned in the Ain i Akbari as Mubarak Ujayal Pargana, towards the west of Dhaka.
Fakhruddin was a great lover of Faqirs; he helped them in different ways. By establishing the mosque, he contributed to the formation of a new Muslim settlement at Dhaka through clearing forests and establishing endowments known as Madad-i-Mash that provided material support to religious institutions such as mosques, madrasahs, khanqas as well as those who were attached to them such as imams, sufis, ulamas, including the poor and destitute commoners attending those institutions.24 This was a part of the process of Islamisation in the southern part of Bengal Delta and eventually consolidation of Islam in the region.25 Mosque architecture evolved as a powerful social institution as well. At times mosques served as a meeting place for Muslim and local people, both intellectually and socially, and contributed to the diffusion of Islam. Hawd al Hayat, the earliest serving Islamic literary work of Bengal, convey the idea that non-Muslims were welcomed to visit mosques, inquire about Islam and debate religious issues. The revenue generated through the cultivation of tax-free land grant surrounding a mosque supported the maintenance of a mosque as well as of people attached to it. Moreover, building a mosque was believed to be an act of great religious merit. In mosque inscriptions it is generally stated that the prophet (Sm.) had said, ‘whoever builds a mosque here, will have a palace built for him by Allah in paradise’.26 After the death of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, his son Gazi Shah ascended the throne of Sonargaon. But he was soon killed by Sultan Iliyas Shah, who united the three units of Bengal and took the title Shah-i-Bangalian or Shah-i-Bangalah. As such, the state he established came to be known as Banglah. The period of Bengal Sultans is known in history as Sultanate Bangala.
It is likely that Dhaka continued as a Muslim cultural centre during the rule of the Iliyas Shahi Sultans. Sonargaon was the capital city of Sultan Iliyas Shah, Sultan Sikander Shah and Sultan Ghiashuddin Azam Shah, where there was a Madrasha of Abu Tawama. Great saints and Sheikhs frequented their court. Sheikh Alaul Haq was the spiritual leader of Sultan Iliyas Shah. The Sultan built a mosque for him at Kolkata.27 Alaul Huq had the habit of making lavish gifts to the poor and wayfarers as he possessed a big endowment. He spent profusely on charitable acts when he resided at Pandua, Tribeni in West Bengal. For this act of piety he was temporarily exiled from Pandua to Sonargaon by Sultan Sikander Shah, where he stayed for two years.28 He died in 1398 A.D. His able son, popularly known as Noor Qutabul Alam was also a great Sufi saint and scholar. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah was his friend. Though we do not have any historical account regarding their presence at Dhaka, the inscription of 1460 A.D. refers to them.
From the study of the inscriptions one can conclude that Dhaka developed into a special qasba or city that was unfortified. One Tarbiat Khan, Khan al Azam, al Muazzam al Mokarram, once the governor of Satgaon under Mahmud Shah, the Sultan of the later Iliyas Shahi dynasty, built a mosque in 861 A.H/1457 A.D.29 This Tarbiat Khan’s able son Ulugh Ajelka Khan built a mosque at Birbhum in 864 A.H/1460 A.D. where he referred to his father as the chief collector of revenue in Dhaka. Tarbiat Khan worked for a special Imam Moulana or great honourable religious leader of Dhaka. He was also a Qazi, seen as a very dignified post in judicial administration. The Imam, Moulana, Qazi of Dhaka was the son of Qazi Ahmad, son of Sheikh Alaul Huq. From these references one can infer that Dhaka began to develop before the arrival of the Iliyas Shahi dynasty. They visited and lived there during the period of Sikander Shah and Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. Thereafter began the rule of the house of Raja Ganesh. Sheikh Alaul Huq died in 1398 A.D. and Noor Qutubul Alam or Ahmad died in 1447 A.D.
Qazi Ahmad’s son, also a Qazi, was a great religious leader of Dhaka, and had a substantial endowment. The revenue from tax free land grants were collected by a chief collector, which implies that there were other junior officers under him. It was a big institution and was run by an able man like Tarbiat Khan, a governor of a province or one of the units of Bangala. Such persons were entrusted with the duty of a Wazir of a provincial head quarter. The Qazi of Dhaka was, thus seen as a great and responsible man in the field of administration. Dhaka steadily progressed culturally and economically. One mosque was built by a lady called Bakht Binat, daughter of Marhamat at Narinda in 1456-57 A.D. This statement is supported by an inscription reproduced above in translation.
Within a period of 100 years, from 1345 to 1459, the mosque of Naswallagali needed repair work. This was carried out by one Khwaja Jahan, a man of the rank of Wazir. He was probably man holding two high ranking posts, as was usual in those days. The area might have been a Muslim area of the city. A Qazi was posted there for administrative reasons and was responsible for restoration of mosques and mosque-related properties. The prophet Mohammad is believed to have said, “He, who wrongly takes possession of the property of a mosque and legacies, acts as if he committed adultery with his daughter and mother and sister”. Qazis were to prevent Mullas and general mass from appropriating mosque property.30
All the inscriptions mentioned above, leads to the conclusion that Dhaka, attained the status of a special city, in the late fifteenth century. Its commercial success is recorded in early sixteenth century when Vertomannus visited the port of Bangalah in 1503 A.D. A Great number of Ulama, Sufis, and Moulanas carried out business with local people. Imams of mosques played a vital role in the rapid growth of the Muslim population. They were descendants of the great Sufis of Bengal and had their origins in the house of Quraish. One of them Said Muhammad, was sent as a missionary to China in 1409 A.D.31 The influence of Ulama and Sufis was great in a society based on trade and commerce. They even fulfilled various government ranks such as Qazis, (Justice) Lawyers, Jurists, Imams and Teachers.
Though not a planned city, Dhaka was a well-connected place through water routes. The entrance water route, i.e., the Dulai canal was protected by two forts built on either side of modern Gandaria. These forts were very important even to the Mughals before they settled on the left side of the canal. The high habitation area of Dhaka on the south of Dulai curve near the Narinda mosque (1457 A.D.) are still places or localities of traditional habitation such as the place of the locality of fish catchers (jaluanagar), weavers of cotton fabrics (Tantibazar), conch-shell cutters and workers (Shankharibazar), carpenters (Sutar/Sutrapur), earthenware producers and painters (Patuatuli, Laksmibazar), gold smiths (Banianagar), and traders of Rokanpur and Bangla Bazar. The Bangla port was visited by Vertomannus in 1503 A.D.32
The Qazis of Dhaka are descendants of the great Sufis of Bengal, who enjoyed tax-free land grants, as a result of which they could spend lavishly. They lived harmoniously with indigenous population, though they belonged to the elite class,33 preached Islam, and earned livelihood by carrying out transactions with the original traders of Dhaka. That is the reason why conversion took place easily. Artisans of Dhaka, particularly the people of Shankhari Bazar and Tantibazar, were followers of Bhakti cult and Vaishnavism34 and liberal-minded Muslims of old Dhaka were followers of the Sufis. The city was under the control of a Chief Qazi. As Dhaka developed from a trade centre to a port city, a thana35 developed there consisting of a police force. Dhakai Muslin was one of the famous exports of Dhaka, and was produced on the bank of the Sitalakhya.36 According to James Taylor, the caste weavers in that town, were Tantis, one of the pure Sudra Castes. They took up weaving, neglecting their previous occupation. Previously, Sudras were only goldsmiths, barbers, and betel leaf sellers.37 It has been noted that Muslim rulers used to give tax-free land grants to the best weavers.38 As such, converted Muslim Jolas or weavers and Jogies or Hindu weavers had landed properties for their own use. Thus Sultanate Dhaka developed from a village market to a river port city within a span of two hundred years. In fact, Dhaka became internationally known by the late fifteenth century. The river port was known by the name of the state Banglah as Bangala port and ultimately Bangla Bazar in Bengali. The city area of Dhaka extended from Gandaria to Babur Bazar, south of Naswalagali on the bank of the river Buriganga. Narinda was considered as a residential area. 
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